Let’s look at the Biology syllabus and the learning objectives to cover all the biology course systematically that will come in Mdcat exam.
CONTENT LIST FOR BIOLOGY
1. Bio-diversity (acellular life/variety of life)
2. Bio-energetic
3. Biological molecules
4. Cell structure and function
5. Coordination and control/nervous & chemical coordination
6. Diversity among animals
7. Enzymes
8. Evolution
9. Life process in animals and plants (nutrition/gaseous exchange/
transport)
10. Prokaryotes
11. Reproduction
12. Support and movement
13. Variation and genetics/inheritance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR BIOLOGY
1. Biodiversity (acellular life/variety of life)
i. Classification of viruses
ii. Discovery of viruses
iii. Structure of viruses
iv. Viral disease (for example AIDS)
Learning Objectives
i. Trace the discovery of virus
ii. Classify viruses on basis of their structure/no. of strands/diseases/host
etc.
iii. Identify symptoms, mode of transmission and causes of viral disease
(AIDS)
2. Bioenergetics
i. Anaerobic respiration (respiration without oxygen)
ii. Electron transport chain
iii. Glycolysis/glycolytic pathway/aerobic respiration
iv. Light dependent and light independent phases/reactions,
v. Oxidative phosphorylation /cyclic and non- cyclic phosphorylation,
vi. Photosynthesis,
vii. Production of ATP,
viii. Role of light, water, CO2, /factors effecting photosynthesis
Learning Objectives
i. Explain the process of photosynthesis
ii. Explain the role of factors(light, water, CO2) affecting photosynthesis
iii. Explain light dependent and independent phases/reaction
iv. Differentiate among Electron transport chain,
phosphorylation, glycolysis, aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
3. Biological molecules
i. Introduction to biological molecules
ii. Water
iii. Carbohydrates
iv. Proteins
v. Lipids
vi. Conjugated molecules (glycolipids, glycoproteins)
Learning Objectives
i. Define and classify biological molecules.
ii. Discuss the importance of biological molecules
iii. Describe biologically important properties of water (polarity,
hydrolysis, specific heat, water as solvent and reagent,
density, cohesion/ionization)
iv. Discuss carbohydrates: monosaccharides (glucose), oligosaccharides
(cane sugar,
sucrose, lactose), polysaccharides (starches, cellulose, glycogen)
v. Describe proteins: amino acids, structure of proteins
vi. Describe lipids: phospholipids, triglycerides, alcohol and esters
(acylglycerol)
vii. Give an account of RNA
viii. Discuss conjugated molecules(glycol lipids, glycol proteins)
4. Cell structure and function
i. Cell wall,
ii. Cytoplasm and cell organelles
o Nucleus
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Mitochondria
o Golgi apparatus/golgi complex /golgi bodies
o Lysosomes
o Plastids/chloroplasts
o Vacuoles
iii. Prokaryote and eukaryote
iv. Fluid mosaic model
Learning Objectives
i. Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cell
ii. Compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic
cells
iii. Outline the structure and function of the following organelles:
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria
iv. Discuss fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
5. Coordination and control/nervous & chemical coordination
i. Nervous system
o Nerve impulse
o Steps involved in nervous coordination
o Neurons (Structure and Types)
ii. Transmission of action potential between cells–synapse
o Electrical synapses
o Chemical synapses
o Transmission of nerve impulse across synapse
iii. Hormones
iv. Endocrine glands
v. Feedback mechanism
o Positive feedback mechanism
o Negative feedback mechanism
vi. Reflexes and reflex arc
vii. Levels of the spinal cord and its main functions
viii.Parts of the brain with their main functions
Learning Objectives
i. Recognize receptors as transducers sensitive to various stimuli.
ii. Define neurons
iii. Explain the structure of a typical neuron (cell body,
dendrites, axon and myelin sheath and schwann cells)
iv. Define nerve impulse
v. List the levels of the spinal cord
vi. List the functions of the spinal cord
vii. Classify reflexes
viii.Briefly explain the functions of components of a reflex arc
ix. List the main parts of the brain (e.g. components of brain stem, mid brain,
cerebellum, cerebrum)
x. Describe the functions of each part
6. Diversity among animals (The Kingdom Animalia)
i. Characteristics and diversity among the animals (animal phyla,
characteristics)
Learning Objectives
i. Describe general characteristic of animals
7. Enzymes
i. Introduction/characteristics of enzymes
ii. Mechanism of action of enzymes
iii. Factors effecting rate of enzyme action
iv. Enzyme inhibition
Learning Objectives
i. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of enzymes
ii. Explain mechanism of action of enzymes
iii. Describe effects of factor on enzyme action (temperature, pH, concentration)
iv. Describe enzyme inhibitors
8. Evolution
i. Concepts of evolution
ii. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
iii. Darwinism’
iv. Darwin’s theory evolution
v. Neo-Darwinism’s
vi. Evidence of evolution
Learning Objectives
i. Explain origin of life according to concept of evolution
ii. Describe the theory of inheritance of acquired characters, as proposed by
Lamarck.
iii. Explain the theory of natural selection as proposed by Darwin
9. Life processes in animals and plants (nutrition/gaseous exchange/transport)
i. Carnivorous plants/parasitic nutrition (pitcher plant, venus fly trap, sundew)
ii. Water and mineral uptake by roots, xylem and phloem
iii. Osmotic pressure/potential
iv. Cardiovascular system (including human heart structure, blood vessels)
v. Respiratory system
vi. Digestive system
vii. Immune & system
viii. Lymphatic system
Learning Objectives
i. Discuss the examples of carnivorous plants (pitcher plant, venus fly trap,
sundew)
ii. Describe osmotic pressure and its importance in life processes in animals and
plants
iii. Describe water and minerals uptake by roots, xylem and phloem
iv. List general structure of human heart
v. Define the phases of a cardiac cycle
vi. List the differences and functions of capillaries, arteries and veins
vii. Describe lymphatic system (organs, nodules, vessels)
viii. Define and discuss the functions and importance of main
components of immune system
ix. Discuss the functions of main part of respiratory system
x. Discuss the role of surfactant in gas exchange
xi. Discuss the process of gas exchange in human lungs
xii. List the parts of human digestive system
xiii. Explain the functions of the main parts of the digestive
system including associated structures and glands
10. Prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera)
i. Cellular Structure of bacteria
ii. Shape and size of bacteria
iii. Importance and control of bacteria
Learning Objectives
i. Describe cellular structures of bacteria
ii. Explain diversity in shape and size in bacteria
iii. Highlight the importance of bacteria and control of harmful bacteria
11. Reproduction
i. Male reproductive system
ii. Female reproductive system (including menstrual cycle)
iii. Sexually transmitted diseases
Learning Objectives
i. Describe the functions of various parts of the male & female
reproductive systems and the hormones that regulate those functions
ii. Describe the menstrual cycle (female reproductive cycle)
emphasizing the role of hormones
iii. List the common sexually transmitted diseases along with their
causative agents and main symptoms
12. Support and movement
i. Cartilage
ii. Types of muscles
o Skeletal muscles
o Cardiac muscles
o Smooth muscles
i. Structure of skeletal muscles
ii. Mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction
iii. Types of joints
iv. Gout and arthritis
Learning Objectives
i. Define cartilage, muscle and bone
ii. Explain the main characteristics of cartilage and bone along with functions
of both
iii. Compare characteristics of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and skeletal
muscles
iv. Explain the ultra-structure of skeletal muscles
v. Describe in brief the process of skeletal muscle contraction
vi. Classify joints
vii. Define gout and arthritis
13. Variation and genetics/inheritance
i. Mendel’s law of inheritance
o Gregor John Mendel and his work
o Mendel’s experiment
o Inheritance of single trait
o Mendel’s principles of inheritance
o Inheritance of two traits
o Law of independent assortment
o Scope of independent assortment in variation
o Statistics and probability relevant to genetics
ii. Multiple allelesiii. Gene linkages and crossing over
iv. Sex linkages in drosophila
v. Sex linkage in human
o Genetics of hemophilia
Learning Objectives
i. Associate inheritance with the laws of Mendel.
ii. Explain the law of independent assortment, using a suitable example.
iii. Describe the terms gene linkage and crossing over
iv. Explain how gene linkage counters independent assortment and
crossing-over modifies the progeny
v. Describe the concept of sex-linkage.
vi. Briefly describe Inheritance of sex –linked traits
vii. Analyze the inheritance of hemophilia
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This routine is a superb stability challenge that forces you to depend on extra than simply brute power.
Whether Or Not you are an athlete, a exercise enthusiast,
or just looking to get more healthy, making a dumbbell
workout in your chest is important to your general mobility and functional health.
Now, many individuals are afraid to perform this motion or are simply not involved because it requires
somewhat setup and will even look slightly humorous.
The reverse cable crossover exercise is another nice choice to
assist you goal the back and develop your again. The train will primarily target the lats,
but you will also notice a fair number of biceps activations.
This is a superb cable exercise that can actually
help you widen your upper again.
Push the handles ahead till your arms are fully extended, then slowly
bring them back to the beginning position. You can even simply alter your physique positioning and
even deliver benches and seats into the combination when utilizing cables.
From a standing, sitting, or mendacity position, you are capable of do all of the variations of free weight chest presses
and flys with a cable machine, plus more. Not only is changing the load easy, however
the cable machine supplies fixed pressure unlike free weights, which have energy
curves due to tension being gravitational. This means if you finish up performing
a cable chest exercise, your time underneath tension is maximized,
which is unbelievable for hypertrophy(muscle building).
You should also goal to make use of exercises that hit the opposite features
of your chest, like arm adduction, and allow you to emphasize the squeeze.
The plate squeeze press is a great option for adding to
your chest exercise regimen to extend muscle hypertrophy and
create chiseled and defined pectorals. The internal chest is the region of
the chest that is positioned between the two pectoralis major muscle tissue.
The sternal head, which is the decrease chest, is the house of the inner chest.
Remember, constructing a big defined chest isn’t only about
hitting the three areas of the pectoral muscle fibers.
By staggering your palms in this push-up variation, you’ll higher goal every pec individually,
rising the workload in your chest. “How a lot do you bench?” If you’ve ever talked to anybody about lifting weights or the fitness center,
you have likely been requested that query. Between the normalcy of that
question and Monday’s being known as “International Chest Day,” there’s no
debate that the chest is essentially the most commonly labored muscle group.
If going to a gym just isn’t feasible, you can also
go for online steering. Once you might have the information and perceive
the approach, it is simple to construct a “bodybuilder-like” upper physique in a few weeks.
Let us know any tips we missed – and your
experience with the inner chest exercises – in the
comments. The upper part of the inside chest is the
origin level of the clavicular head of the pec main.
The rib cage provides structural support for the pectoral muscular
tissues and influences the vary of movement during chest workout routines.
Pay consideration to proper type and respiratory to
maximize your chest muscle activation whereas respecting
the rib cage’s natural movement. Moreover, cable flyes supply versatility by means of adjusting the height and angle of the pulleys, allowing you to vary the angle of chest engagement.
Cable chest presses are an efficient way to strengthen your chest muscle tissue.
They have fixed pressure throughout the motion and a full
range of movement. Chest dips are an effective compound
motion that targets the lower chest, shoulders, and triceps.
Leaning ahead through the exercise locations larger
emphasis on the chest muscular tissues (Kompf & Arandjelović, 2017).
If you don’t have any balls, you also can make this a true no gear chest train through the use of a few heavy
books stacked together as a substitute of a ball. Each heads converge,
and then the muscle inserts on the humerus, or upper-arm bone.
If you may have a training buddy who wants to develop their
inner chest area, be sure to share this info with
them as nicely. When you do this for the lower, middle, or higher part of
the internal chest, you should be ready to actually feel the muscle tissue contract and turn out to be firm.
You also can modify a cable machine to work every a half of the inner chest.
Lie on a flat bench with a dumbbell in each hand, palms facing forward.2.
Lower the dumbbells to your chest while maintaining your elbows at a 90-degree angle.three.
Decrease the barbell to your chest, allowing your elbows to flare
out slightly.4. To prepare the chest from completely different angles, try utilizing different varieties
of tools, similar to a dumbbell, barbell, or plates, for performing exercises.
This variation of the chest flye targets your chest and shoulders to build
muscle energy and energy. For girls, standing chest flyes can even give your breasts a slight carry, giving them
a bigger look. Strength training and weightlifting no less than twice per week to construct muscle is
considered one of the greatest ways to increase your calorie expenditure.
It’s additionally essential to maintain your wrists straight and avoid locking out your elbows on the prime
of the motion. Hopefully, by now you may have a good grasp of your chest muscle
anatomy, what some effective chest workouts are, and how you can combine them into one
superior chest exercise. Bar dips require a sure
diploma of strength and control to even be a risk.
The coracobrachialis is a small muscle positioned deep beneath the
deltoid and pectoralis main on the entrance inner aspect of the arm.
Throw in flye actions, cable crossovers, and/or pec-deck flyes at the
end of your workout. These are isolation workouts, good for concentrating
on the chest however won’t drive you to go too heavy except, with good form, you’re
really trying to pack on the size with heavy weights.
While a lot of guys are striving to fill out the tops of their t-shirts,
they also begin to contemplate what precisely they’re working with once they take that shirt off.
The inner chest refers again to the space between the
pectoral muscles—and the goal is for that spot to pop, with lean striations, particularly as you progress your
arms toward your midline to flex. You can also embrace this
move in a home chest workout by switching to dumbbells and utilizing the ground in place of a bench.
Build sculpted inner pecs using these 10 workout routines (and a fantastic workout!), along with learning the fundamentals of chest
anatomy and coaching suggestions and tricks.
They basically make up the whole top half of the front
of your torso. Faults in form might embody permitting the elbows to flare out, lowering the burden too far down in the path of the neck,
or utilizing momentum to complete the movement.
These faults can improve the chance of harm and scale
back the effectiveness of the exercise. Start from a regular pushup place
however unfold your palms wider than shoulder length.
This will force your chest to pick up the
brunt of the work from your triceps and shoulders.
The flat bench press is a wonderful chest train, as it almost completely embodies the pecs’
main function, which is to deliver the arm ahead.
Furthermore, a large grip (“fingers on the rings”) where your upper arm factors
about 45° out to the perimeters, entails almost the entire
pectoralis major’s muscle fibers. Alongside with the aesthetic advantages of including definition and size
to your chest muscle tissue, concentrating on your internal chest
will help you construct power. The forms of actions that assist to hit the inside chest shall be priceless
for your heavy pressing movements, like the
bench press.
Isolation workout routines are workout routines that focus
on a single muscle group, whereas compound exercises work multiple muscle teams.
Isolation workouts are used to deal with a muscle imbalance or give
consideration to specific muscle groups which are uncared for in compound movements.
The bench press is, without a doubt, top-of-the-line
workout routines for constructing mass, particularly within the
chest, but chest isolation workout routines help sculpt and outline the pecs.
In this text, we will teach you in regards to
the anatomy of the muscular tissues and all the best isolation chest exercises to assist get your pecs outlined.
This, in flip, will make your entire body stronger, allowing you to go
heavier throughout different lifts. If you’ve ever sat down on the pec deck, then you realize the basic actions required
to pull this exercise off. The wide grip bench press is a
variation of the normal bench press exercise that entails
gripping the barbell wider than shoulder-width apart. This train primarily targets the
middle and outer chest muscles, as well as the triceps and shoulders.
The flat bench dumbbell press is a popular train for developing chest power and size.
It acts heavily on the sternal head, which is what we want for the inner chest.
Whereas the bench press doesn’t act instantly on the inside chest, it develops
the energy that supports the workouts that do. If you’re struggling with keeping the weight balanced,
you’ll find a way to experiment with elevating your hips off of the bench slightly.
Getting extra stability underneath your belt is going to help with your core strength as properly as methodically turning your pecs into stable
steel as you build and industrialize your pectoral muscular tissues.
Dumbbell pullovers are just like skull crushers, but a number of tweaks to
the train make this an incredible movement on your pectoral
muscular tissues. It combines the flexion and adduction of your decrease chest, and it’s easy to pack on lots of
weight right here as you progress.
This unique characteristic makes them highly environment friendly for attaining a wide
range of fitness goals, together with muscle achieve, fat loss, and useful strength improvement.
Focusing on Time Under Rigidity (TUT) throughout your chest workouts can profoundly influence the effectiveness of your muscle-building efforts.
TUT refers to the length your muscle tissue are actively engaged
or underneath load throughout each repetition of an train.
By extending this era strategically, you introduce a novel stimulus to your muscle fibers, stimulating
them to adapt and develop. Push-ups are
a basic body weight exercise that not only strengthen your chest but also present a wonderful opportunity to
target your internal pectoral muscle tissue.
This basic train requires no tools and could
be performed virtually anywhere. The main advantage of the dumbbell chest fly is its capacity
to provide a deep stretch and contraction within the chest muscular tissues.
This variation is much like the clap push-up, however as a substitute of clapping your arms together, you’ll be urgent up with one hand whereas the other stays in place.
Push-ups can even make your shoulders and arms look bigger, giving the phantasm of
a larger chest. I personally favor this variation called straight-bar dips,
as I feel it much more in my lower chest. This might be because of to the added internal
rotation during the movement which is another
main function of the decrease chest and it additionally offers my core a great exercise.
Trying to study how one can target each of your muscle teams appropriately (and effectively)
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Cable Squats are an wonderful alternative to barbell squats
to build quality muscle mass within the legs. The cable shrug is a variation of the shoulder shrug
and one of the greatest higher trap cable workouts to build the higher back’s trapezius muscle.
The cable upright row is among the finest variations of the upright row that helps to construct the shoulders and trap muscle tissue.
The cable upright row is a compound exercise primarily concentrating
on your shoulder muscles, particularly the lateral (side) deltoids.
It additionally activates muscular tissues in your upper back, like the trapezius (traps),
and involves your biceps for assistance.
Though you might not see many people utilizing
the cable machine for shoulder presses, it is nonetheless a great exercise to combine in your shoulder exercise.
Cable Pullovers are the best train for building a strong rib cage
and serratus anterior muscle, which together form a complete chest and again.
Jeff Cavaliere is a Bodily Therapist, Energy Coach and creator of the ATHLEAN-X Training Packages and ATHLEAN-Rx Supplements.
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The pectoralis major muscle is made up of three parts whose fibers run in different directions.
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At this degree, the tablets provide a more intensive
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still staying true to their status for decreased side effects.
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So in conclusion, Winstrol offers you more strength to perform
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The oral LD50 of oxandrolone in mice and canine is bigger than 5,000 mg/kg.
Sufferers with reasonable to extreme COPD or COPD sufferers who’re unresponsive to bronchodilators
must be monitored closely for COPD exacerbation and fluid retention. The largest drawbacks of Clenbuterol must be that the side effects are unbearable and that it’s an illegal
compound. The problem with advising on banned substances is that there are restricted
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Essentially, steroids are lab-made substances with sturdy anabolic results.
It contributes to extremely defined muscular tissues, extreme workouts,
and robust fats elimination. It’s value noting that while these strategies might help handle and mitigate Anavar unwanted side effects, they do not remove all risks.
Anavar is a fast-acting steroid derived from DHT (dihydrotestosterone)4
with a half-life of eight to 10 hours. It has been a
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that females also can use due to its gentle androgenic effects.
As one of many least androgenic steroids in the marketplace, Anavar doesn’t convert estrogen into
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From my years of private experience and intensive analysis carried out on steroids – Anavar isn’t value it.
Rather we advise using a pure and legal different just like the Anvarol.
This is because of excessive stimulation of
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Consequently, a user’s coronary heart price can velocity up and turn into enlarged (34).
Clenbuterol burns a significant quantity of subcutaneous fats, just
like Anavar; thus, combining these two compounds will
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Therefore, any enhance in muscle hypertrophy diminishes following cycle cessation.
Trenbolone is the best recomp steroid but additionally the harshest AAS we are in a position to use.
Solely run this cycle if you’ve used Tren earlier than and understand tips on how to handle its side effects.
Although it’s an injectable steroid, Tren is thought to be extra liver-toxic than Anavar, so we maintain this as a
brief cycle. This is a male-only stack because of Trenbolone being unsuitable
for women. This is more of a sophisticated cycle as we’re stacking
two oral AAS, which comes with dangers.
Nevertheless, athletes and bodybuilders now typically take 15–25 mg per day.
When treating the scalp externally, there isn’t
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Anavar causes vital intracellular water retention,
leading to constantly full and pumped muscles all through the day.
Such muscle fullness, combined with Anavar’s
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Such a protocol can also assist users retain more energy
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Due to Anadrol’s drastic impact on HDL cholesterol levels, water retention, and purple
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Anadrol is sort of presumably one of the best steroid when it comes
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While not as closely impacting the thyroid as other anabolic steroids,
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You might do this by measuring testorone ranges, taking blood samples, and so on. It’s best to get this accomplished
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The effects of Anavar on menstrual cycles can vary relying on the
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Anavar and Winstrol are related in plenty of ways, but
Anavar is the better selection for chopping. The cause is that Anavar has anabolic properties that assist with fat loss while Winstrol does much less in this regard.
There are varied PCT protocols available, with each tailored
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Some of the bigger mg tabs such because the 50 mg tabs are actually a ache
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I’ve tried “pulse cycling” earlier than (only working orals on coaching
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